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Citations identify the source where you originally got your information, whether that is a quote, statistics, or general ideas. Citations are used in almost all forms of scholarly communication, such as papers and presentations. Including citations is essential and ethical, as it gives credit to the original author(s) and tells your reader where they can find out more. Almost all assignments will require that you use citations and that you use them properly.
Writing and citation styles are used to maintain standards and consistency in scholarly publishing. When writers use the same formatting standards it makes it easier to read, review, and compare literature. Style guides are not just for formatting citations and references. They are used to organize the content for your entire paper. There are three main citations styles used in the Humanities and Social Sciences: APA, Chicago, and MLA. The Health Sciences use AMA and research in the Sciences includes a range of styles depending on the specific discipline. As a student you may be taking courses in multiple subject areas and the differences in styles can be confusing. This page will help you identify the distinguishing features of each style and help you find the guides you need to format your writing.
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The Health Sciences uses two main citations styles - APA or AMA. APA is mostly used by Nursing or Rehabilitation Sciences. American Medical Association (AMA) is mostly used by Medicine, Dentistry, and Pharmacy. AMA and National Library of Medicine (NLM) are two common types of the Vancouver style. Vancouver does not have a specific style guide but only indicates that students must use numbered-author style. This means that the citation in-text is a number and that the reference list is ordered numerically by which reference appears first in the text. We strongly recommend that students use AMA as it has a clear style guide with lots of examples.
| In-Text Citation Example | AMA Reference List Example |
| Austerity measures in health and social spending in England since 2010 are projected to cost 120 000 lives by 2020.1 |
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In-text citations go in numerical order, so the first in-text citation provided in your assignment should be 1, then 2, and so on. The exception to this rule is when you need to cite the same source multiple times. In that case, you must use the same number each time. The reference list is then placed in this same numerical order. All items which are cited in the text must appear in the reference list, and all items on the reference list must be cited at least once in the text.
Editing when using a numbered citation style can be difficult, especially when you find yourself moving your text in such a way that you need to reorder your citations. During your final edits, check to see if there are any citations that need to be renumbered, and don’t forget to edit your reference list to match the new order.
Many students use citation management software to help them create and manage citations and references. Citation managers can be especially helpful when using a numbered style, because they can automatically reorder your citations and references as you go. On the other hand, citation managers take time to learn to use. It’s up to you to decide if the amount of time invested in learning the software is worth the time saved for your assignments, but remember that once you learn the software you will be able to use it on all of your written assignments.
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APA Style is used for formatting academic writing in the Social Sciences, Education, Nursing, and Business. APA uses an Author-Date method for in-text citations and has specific requirements with regards to title page, headers, the abstract, and subheadings. |
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APA Style Guidelines |
| Book or Article | Citation |
| (Last Name, Year) | A new period of industrial history emerged in South Wales after the coal stoppage of 1898. The class struggle of the early 20th Century led to the erosion of traditional Welsh social relations and culture (Evans, 2000). |
| (Year) | According to Evans, a new period of industrial history emerged in South Wales after the coal stoppage of 1898. The class struggle of the early 20th Century led to the erosion of traditional Welsh social relations and culture (2000). |
| (Last Name, Year, Pages) |
Quotation Example “The six-months’ coal stoppage of 1898 had inaugurated a new era of industrial relations in south Wales. The old centripetal values of Welshness, Nonconformity, class harmony and communal identification were fractured by the new, centrifugal forces of class struggle and industrial conflict” (Evans, 2000, p.72). |
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| Last Name, A.A. (Year of Publication). Title of the book:Subtitle of the book. Publisher. | Evans, D. G. (2000). A History of Wales, 1906-2000. University of Wales Press. |
| Article | |
| Last name, A.A. (Year of Publication). Title of the article: Subtitle of the article. Journal Name Volume(Issue), Pages. doi | Brody, J. (2015). A philological reading of a poem by Dylan Thomas. Philosophy And Literature 39(2), 495–507. https://doi.org/10.1353/phl.2015.0051 |
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Chicago Style is used to format academic writing in subjects such as History, Music, and Classics. The Chicago Manual of Style (CMOS) has two options for citing sources but the Note-Bibliography (NB) method described here is more commonly used. |
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The Chicago Manual Online (18th ed.) |
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Paraphrase Examples A new period of industrial history emerged in South Wales after the coal stoppage of 1898. The class struggle of the early 20th Century led to the erosion of traditional Welsh social relations and culture1. According to Evans, a new period of industrial history emerged in South Wales after the coal stoppage of 1898. The class struggle of the early 20th Century led to the erosion of traditional Welsh social relations and culture1. |
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Quotation Example “The six-months’ coal stoppage of 1898 had inaugurated a new era of industrial relations in south Wales. The old centripetal values of Welshness, Nonconformity, class harmony and communal identification were fractured by the new, centrifugal forces of class struggle and industrial conflict”1. |
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| Book | |
| Last Name, First Name. Title of the Book. Publisher, Year. | Evans, D. Gareth. A History of Wales, 1906-2000. University of Wales Press, 2000. |
| Article | |
| Last name, First Name. "Title of the Article." Journal Name Volume, Issue No. (Year): Pages. doi. | Brody, Jules. "A Philological Reading of a Poem by Dylan Thomas." Philosophy and Literature 39, no. 2 (2015): 495–507. https://doi.org/10.1353/phl.2015.0051. |
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The Turabian Manual for Writers is a comprehensive guide to research and writing compatible with the Chicago Manual of Style. The Turabian guide walks students through the entire research and writing process, from setting the scope of your study, finding and evaluating sources of information, formulating arguments, writing your paper, and formatting Chicago style citations for Humanities and Social Sciences subjects. |
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Turabian Quick Citation Guide |
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MLA Style is often used to format academic writing in English Literature, Literary Studies, and Cultural Studies. In-text citations in MLA include the author's name and source page number if applicable but not the date of publication. |
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MLA Handbook Plus |
| Book or Article | Citation |
| (Last Name Page) |
Paraphrase Examples A new period of industrial history emerged in South Wales after the coal stoppage of 1898. The class struggle of the early 20th Century led to the erosion of traditional Welsh social relations and culture (Evans 72). |
| (Page) | According to Evans, a new period of industrial history emerged in South Wales after the coal stoppage of 1898. The class struggle of the early 20th Century led to the erosion of traditional Welsh social relations and culture (72). |
| (Last Name Pages) |
Quotation Example “The six-months’ coal stoppage of 1898 had inaugurated a new era of industrial relations in south Wales. The old centripetal values of Welshness, Nonconformity, class harmony and communal identification were fractured by the new, centrifugal forces of class struggle and industrial conflict” (Evans 72). |
| Book | |
| Last Name, First Name. Title of the Book. Publisher, Year. | Evans, D. Gareth. A History of Wales, 1906-2000. University of Wales Press, 2000. |
| Article | |
| Last name, First Name. "Title of the Article." Journal Name, Volume, Issue, Year, Pages. Database, doi. | Brody, Jules. "A Philological Reading of a Poem by Dylan Thomas." Philosophy and Literature, vol. 39, no. 2, 2015, pp. 495–507. Literature Online, https://doi.org/10.1353/phl.2015.0051. |
The sciences and engineering disciplines do not all follow one citation style nor one writing style format. Some of the science and engineering styles include: American Chemical Society (ACS) style, IEEE (Engineering) style, or the Council of Science editors style. The most common styles used in STEM and their associated disciplines are listed below.
| Style | Discipline |
| American Chemical Society (ACS) style | Chemistry |
| American Mathematical Society Style Guide | Mathematics |
| Council of Science Editors | Various science disciplines |
| Geological Society of America | Geology |
| IEEE Style | Engineering & Computer Science |
Science and technology citation styles of have the following characteristics.
Many science citation styles include abbreviated journal titles. If the style you are using abbreviates journal titles, you need to use an official abbreviation. Check the style guidelines to find out which journal abbreviation list you should use. Some common sites to find journal abbreviations include:
CASSI (for ACS Style)
Gregory Younging’s Elements of Indigenous Style is the first published guide to common questions and issues of style and is an essential resource for respectfully and accurately writing about Indigenous peoples, their histories and cultures. The guide includes discussion of culturally appropriate terminology, advice on working with Elders and Knowledge Keepers, and offers strategies for avoiding stereotypes and misrepresentations when writing about Indigenous peoples.
Online & Print Copies at UM Libraries
The historical exclusion of Indigenous perspectives from scholarly research has led to the reproduction of harmful colonial narratives and has failed to adequately acknowledge the expertise and authority inherent in Indigenous Knowledge systems. Properly citing Indigenous Elders and Knowledge Keepers in academic research is a matter of scholarly integrity and a crucial step towards acknowledging and respecting Indigenous knowledge, oral traditions, and cultural heritage.
Most style guides suggest citing Indigenous Knowledge and Elder teachings as you would cite other forms of personal communication however this does not acknowledge the unique nature of Indigenous Knowledge or respect the sacredness of teachings passed down through generations. If there is a conflict between a particular style guide and the following guidelines, these guidelines should be followed in all cases.
It’s important to keep in mind that not all knowledge can be shared – when in doubt, always consult with an Elder about what can be shared when referencing Indigenous Knowledge.
Note: If you would like to approach an Elder or Knowledge Keeper for teachings, remember to follow protocol. If you are unsure what their protocol is, please ask them ahead of time. You may also consult the University of Manitoba guidelines on cultural protocols and working respectfully with Elders and Knowledge Keepers.
Learn more about Indigenous Culture and Protocols at University of Manitoba
These guidelines were developed at the University of Manitoba in discussion with Elder Margaret Lawrence, Elder Charlotte Nolin and Pipe Carrier Nitanis Leary, and incorporate elements from the knowledge and templates shared by Lorisia MacLeod at NorQuest College and from Kwantlen Polytechnic University. For further information and guidance, please consult How to Cite AMA in the Health Sciences: Indigenous Knowledge.
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In-Text Citation Example |
Reference List Example |
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It is important to consult an Indigenous Elder or Knowledge Keeper to make sure that you are entitled to publish information they pass on to you. [1] |
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These guidelines were developed at the University of Manitoba in discussion with Elder Margaret Lawrence, Elder Charlotte Nolin and Pipe Carrier Nitanis Leary, and incorporate elements from the knowledge and templates shared by Lorisia MacLeod at NorQuest College and from Kwantlen Polytechnic University. For further information and guidance, please consult How to Cite APA in the Health Sciences: Indigenous Knowledge.
Use the standard author-date approach for citing Elders and Knowledge Keepers. If they have a traditional name they would like to use, replace the last name with the traditional name. Use the year of the date of correspondence.
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Narrative Citation |
According to Lavallee (2024), Nolin (2024), and Leary (2024), not all knowledge that an Elder or Knowledge Keeper shares with you is allowed to be told to anyone else. |
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Parenthetical Citation |
It is important to consult an Indigenous Elder or Knowledge Keeper to make sure that you are entitled to publish information they pass on to you (Lavallee, 2024; Nolin, 2024; Leary 2024). |
Unlike other forms of personal communication, Elders and Knowledge Keepers must be cited in-text and in the reference page.
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Last Name, First Initial. (Elder, Knowledge Keeper, or other preferred title), Nation/Community. Treaty Territory if applicable. Where they live if applicable. Topic/subject of communication if applicable [Personal communication]. Year, Month Date. |
Nolin, C. (Elder), Metis Nation. Red River Settlement. Residing in Treaty 1. Citing Indigenous Knowledge [Personal communication]. 2024, April 29. |
The following guidelines are based on a template developed by Kwantlen Polytechnic University, and we thank them for sharing. Unlike other forms of personal communication, Elders and Knowledge Keepers must be cited in-text and in the reference page.
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First Names Last Name (Elder), Nation, Topic/subject of communication if applicable, Personal communication, Territorial acknowledgement of where the information was shared, Month Date, Year. |
Delores Cardinal (Elder), Goodfish Lake Cree Nation. Living in Treaty 6. Personal communication. Edmonton, Alberta. April 4, 2004. |
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Last Name, First Names (Elder), Nation. Topic/subject of communication if applicable. Personal communication. Territorial acknowledgement of where the information was shared. Month Date, Year. |
Cardinal, Delores (Elder), Goodfish Lake Cree Nation. Living in Treaty 6. Personal communication. Edmonton, Alberta, April 4, 2004. |
The following guidelines are based on a template developed by Lorisia MacLeod and shared in the spirit of wahkôhtowin and reconciliation by NorQuest College. Unlike other personal communications, Elders and Knowledge Keepers should be cited in-text and in the reference list.
Delores Cardinal described the nature of the place... OR…The nature of the place was ... (Cardinal).
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Last Name, First Name., Nation/Community. Treaty Territory if applicable. City/Community they live in if applicable. Topic/subject of communication if applicable. Date Month Year. |
Cardinal, Delores., Goodfish Lake Cree Nation. Treaty 6. Lives in Edmonton. Oral teaching. 4 April 2004. |
Citation justice involves intentionally citing marginalized authors including those who identify as women, BIPOC, or 2SLGBTQIA+. This practice is a response to the citation gap created by systemic failures. Citation justice is not about excluding the work of white male scholars but elevating a more diverse group of voices within our own work. The goal is to highlight the fact that, in some fields, women and people of color are underrepresented, and achieving balanced representation will take time. Ultimately, citation justice aims to foster a more equitable academic landscape, with citation practices being one way we can positively contribute to this change.
You can’t automatically know if a citation is diverse just by looking at an author’s name. Instead, use a database that collects works by minority authors such as Cite Black Authors or the I-Portal. You can also try doing a manual “citation audit” using the criteria below. While it’s not always possible to know if the source you’re citing is authored by a minority researcher, doing a quick check could provide more information.
This content was adapted from resources created by Liz Chenevey and the University of Victoria Libraries using Creative Commons Attribution-ShareAlike 4.0 International Licenses.
Citing images can be a challenging task. The exact contents and format of the citation will vary depending on what the subject of the image is, where the image was retrieved from, and how much information is available about the image. The following guide provides basic examples for citing images from websites in APA, Chicago, and MLA. However, because the details of a citation shift based on each unique situation, the best practice is to consult the relevant style guide to learn why citations are constructed the way that they are.
For assistance citing images as artworks or maps see the Examples of Citing Images sheet.
If an image is included in the text of a paper, the copyright of the image must be checked and proper permissions and attributions should be provided.
| Image from a Website | |
| Creator's Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year of Creation). Title [Format]. Title of the Website. URL | McCurry, S. (1985). Afghan girl [Photograph]. National Geographic. https://www.nationalgeographic.com/magazine/national-geographic-magazine-50-years-of-covers/#/ngm-1985-jun-714.jpg |
Note: If the image being cited is considered a subsection of a larger work then the title is not italicized.
| Image from a Website (No Title) | |
| Creator's Last Name, First Initial. Middle Initial. (Year). [Subject and Format of the Image]. Title of the Website. URL | Rinaldi, J. (2016). [Photograph series of a boy who finds his footing after abuse by those he trusted]. The Pulitzer Prizes. https://www.pulitzer.org/winners/jessica-rindaldi |
| Image from a Website (No Author, No Title, No Date) | |
| [Subject and Format of the Image]. (n.d.). Title of the Website. Retrieval Date (if necessary), URL | [X-ray image of a chest]. (n.d.). Mayo Clinic. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/chest-x-rays/multimedia/chest-x-ray/img-20006961 |
Note: Before using this format, consider whether a group or organization affiliated with the image could reasonably act as author.
Note: Retrieval dates are only necessary for images from unstable sources (websites that change over time and do not archive material).
When citing an image in Chicago the placement of the citation is dependent on whether there are simply references to the image in the work or if the image itself is reproduced in the work.
If the image is only referred to and does not appear in your work, you can make the decision whether to include a footnote or simply present information about the image in the text of your work.
If the image appears in your work then a citation should be included in the caption of the image and an entry should be made in the bibliography.
| Image from a Website | ||
| Note | Creator's Name, Image Title, Date, Medium, Location of Work, URL. | Julian Walker, Protest, October 21, 2011, Photograph, Flickr, https://www.flickr.com/photos/29093311@N03/6268956289. |
| Bibliography | Last Name, First Name. Image Title. Date. Medium. Location of Work, URL. | Walker, Julian. Protest. October 21, 2011. Photograph, Flickr, https://www.flickr.com/photos/29093311@N03/6268956289. |
Note: If the image being cited is considered a subsection of a larger work, the title is not italicized and is instead enclosed in quotation marks.
| Image from a Website (No Title) | ||
| Note | Creator's Name, Description of the Image, Date, Medium, Location of Work, URL. | Stuart Palley, The Castle Fire burns in the Sierra National Forest, September 13, 2020, Photograph, National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ science/article/inside-california-race-to-contain-devastating-wildfires. |
| Bibliography | Last Name, First Name. Description of the Image. Date. Medium, Location of Work, URL. | Palley, Stuart. The Castle Fire burns in the Sierra National Forest. September 13, 2020. Photograph, National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/ science/article/inside-california-race-to-contain-devastating-wildfires. |
| Image from a Website (No Author, No Title, No Date) | ||
| Note | Description of the Image, Medium. Location of Work, Date Accessed, URL. | X-ray image of a chest, Mayo Clinic, Photograph, Accessed May 12, 2023, https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/chest-x-rays/multimedia/chest-x-ray/img-20006961. |
| Bibliography | Description of the Image. Medium. Location of Work, Date Accessed. URL. | X-ray image of a chest. Mayo Clinic, Photograph, Accessed May 12, 2023. https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/chest-x-rays/multimedia/chest-x-ray/img-20006961. |
| Image from a Website | |
| Creator’s Last Name, First Name. Title. Date. Name of Website, URL. | Silver, Walter. Factory. 1986. New York Public Library Digital Collections, digitalcollections.nypl.org/items/51fd9310-ea71-0131-8221-58d385a7bbd0. |
Note: If the image being cited is considered a subsection of a larger work, the title is not italicized and is instead enclosed in quotation marks.
| Image from a Website (No Title) | |
| Creator’s Last Name, First Name. Description of the image. Date. Name of Website, URL. | Palley, Stuart. The Castle Fire burns in the Sierra National Forest. 13 Sept. 2020. National Geographic, https://www.nationalgeographic.com/science/article/inside-california-race-to-contain-devastating-wildfires. |
| Image from a Website (No Author, No Title, No Date) | |
| Description of the Image. Name of Website, URL. Date Accessed. | X-ray image of a chest. Mayo Clinic, https://www.mayoclinic.org/tests-procedures/chest-x-rays/multimedia/chest-x-ray/img-20006961. Accessed 12 May. 2023. |
When you use an image in your academic work that you did not produce, you need to consider the copyright status of the image in addition to citation guidelines. There are two main points to consider regarding copyrighted works, permissions and attributions.
Permissions - an author must seek the permission of the copyright holder before using an image in their work unless the work has entered the public domain, an open license like Creative Commons applies, or use of the image qualifies under a Copyright exception like the Fair Dealing exception described below.
Attributions - an author must always include a statement acknowledging the copyright of an image included in their work regardless of the way in which the image is used. The exact format of this statement depends on the style used in the work
Work done in an academic environment (especially student work) is often covered by the Fair Dealing exception which allow individuals to use copyrighted material without obtaining permissions from the copyright holder for specific purposes including education, research, and private study. However, you should not assume that Fair Dealing applies to your use of a work just because it was done in an educational setting.
The following points are considered in determining whether use of a work falls under fair dealing. Not all points must be satisfied in order for use of a work to be deemed fair dealing, and one point alone is not sufficient to deem use of a work fair.
Purpose of the dealing (educational, research, commercial?)
Character of the dealing (How widely is the work being distributed? How many instances of the work were reproduced?)
Amount of the dealing (How much of the work itself was reproduced?)
Alternatives to the dealing (Was it necessary to use this specific work or could another work under different copyright have been used?)
The nature of the work (Is the work already widely known? Unpublished?...etc.)
Effect of the dealing (Did this reproduction of the work have an effect on demand for the original?)
Even if your use of a work falls under fair dealing and you do not need to seek permission to reproduce it, you must always provide a copyright attribution acknowledging the copyright of the work.
Using Images in Assignments tip sheet
Further questions concerning copyright can be addressed to Copyright Office (um.copyright@umanitoba.ca)
Citation or reference managers are apps that can be used to automatically format your references (in almost any style) to include in your assignments by integrating with a word processing program. That means you can change your reference style from APA to MLA to AMA with a click of a button! While you do have to invest some time in learning how to use a citation manager and populate it with your references, it can save you a lot of time when it comes to writing and you can use it throughout your whole academic career. Each tool works differently but the basic idea is that you put your references in – either automatically through a database, by dragging and dropping PDFs, or manually – and then link the citation manager with your assignment to insert formatted citations and a complete bibliography.
| Zotero | Mendeley | EndNote |
| Free; open-source | Free; owned by Elsevier | $159.99 for students |
| Common in arts, humanities, health sciences and sciences | Common in sciences and health sciences | Common in health sciences |
| Great for non-traditional references (e.g., musical scores) | Great for group work | Great for very large sets of references |
| Desktop and web versions | Desktop and web versions | Desktop works best |
| Works with MS Office, LibreOffice, and Google Docs | Works with MS Office | Works with MS Office and LibreOffice |
More detailed information on the differences between the tools and how to use them are found on our Intro to Citation Managers.
Citation/Reference generators are online tools that turn some basic information, such as a URL or journal article title, into a formatted citation that can be inserted into your assignments. The quality of these generators vary, and the quality of the citations vary. For example, generating a citation for a journal article in APA is common and likely to be correct but generating a citation for an out-of-print musical score in Vancouver is uncommon and mistakes are more likely. We encourage you to always check the citations that are generated against a style guide to ensure that it is meeting the requirements for your citation style.
ZoteroBib - a free online citation generator program